Wilma Mankiller

 (Wilma Mankiller)





Wilma Mankiller’s speech to the Sonoma State University was entirely enlightening and fascinating. Mankiller discusses a variety of issues concerning the Native Americans. For instance,Mankiller states that the Native Americans face the erosion of their cultural values.  In addition, she describes how it is difficult for the Indians since many Americans do not know their history, whereas the Native Americans were forced to adapt to the American lifestyle. What captivated me the most during Mankiller’s speech is when she talked about the values of the Cherokee tribe. For example, she discusses how the Cherokee believes in being responsible and respectable of others.

Mankiller states that in the Cherokee country, cultural identity is apparent in many ways. For instance, the tribe members help build other people’s homes since they believe in being responsible for one another.[i] Mankiller continues on to say that a tribe elder was once questioned what it meant to be a good Cherokee. He replied that a good Cherokee was one that had respect towards others, respect to himself, keeps his word, and helps others.[ii]

 

Mankiller informs the listeners that during the late 1800’s, the Cherokee would have a grand ceremony every year. The motivation of this ceremony was to rekindle relationships and request forgiveness for improper behavior that occurred during the previous year. In addition to asking forgiveness, the purpose of these rituals was to clean the mind from bad thoughts. The reason for this is because it was believed that once someone has negative thoughts it would then lead to harmful and violent actions. Fascinatingly, everyone who joined these ceremonies would be absolved from their sins; once they were forgiven, they were no longer allowed to discuss their transgressions since they were permanently erased.  Thus, everyone would leave the ceremonies without hatred towards one another. Another great idea that was established during these ceremonies was that each family would distinguish their fire outside the homes and would then relight from the fire by the ceremonies. This would symbolize unity.[iii]

 

Cherokees in today’s day and age strive to preserve these cultural values. For instance, in regards to having a clear mind from bad thoughts, a Cherokee elder would always start his meetings by stating that it is important to remove bad thoughts from your mind.[iv] In fact, Mankiller, who was a Cherokee chief, believed that she was elected several times as leader since she was constantly positive.[v]

I am very pleased to have watched the YouTube clip of Wilma Mankiller’s speech. I have learned so much new information about Native Americans in the past as well as in the present. I particularly enjoyed reading about the values of the Cherokee (especially because throughout the course, I have written several papers on the Cherokee and this clip has given me the opportunity to understand their ideals even more).

Work Cited: 

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[i] Sonoma State University, “Wilma Mankiller, YouTube, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVLgwpHSYv0 (accessed 10 December 2013).

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Ibid.

[iv] Ibid.

[v] Ibid.

BIA

I searched the website of the U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs. This website was extremely enlightening and informative. It provides in-depth answers to frequently asked questions about the history and the current state of the Native American tribes. For instance, it discusses the term sovereignty and how it is applied to Native Americans; in addition, it clarifies the present relationship between the tribes and United States.

I had several questions that were answered by this website. For example, when was the last year that the Native Americans and the United States government signed a peace treaty? What are the powers of the tribal self-government?

The last treaty took place in the year 1871. From the first treaty up until 1871, the Senate ratified 370 treaties![i] Even if a tribe does not have a treaty with the United States, its members may still receive services from federal programs, if qualified.[ii]  In the year 1924, American Indians and Alaska Natives were granted citizenship; in 1965, their voting rights were strengthened.[iii]

 

(This is a picture of Native Americans voting in the 1960’s).[iv]

Currently, there are 566 federally recognized American Indian and Alaska Native tribes. The United States government acknowledges that federally recognized tribes have certain powers of self-government – tribal sovereignty – and may receive particular benefits and programs as a result of their relationship with the US government.[v]  The association linking federally recognized tribes and the United States is between sovereigns; in other words, between a government and another government.[vi] Historically, tribes received federally recognition status through treaties, acts of Congress, and court decisions.[vii] However, if a tribe was “terminated” by Congress, then only Congress has the authority to restore the tribe’s recognition status (rather than via treaties and court decisions). Tribal sovereignty guarantees that any decisions about the tribes with regard to their property and other important matters are made with their involvement and approval.[viii]

The website also discusses the history of the BIA, which is a federal agency that preserves the relationship between federally recognized tribes and the United States government. In addition, it encourages and supports tribal self-determination. It was in the year 1824 that the BIA was established. The name Bureau of Indian Affairs was introduced in 1947. Since 1824 there have been 45 Commissioners of Indian Affairs; only six of them were Native Americans.[ix] The BIA has done much to promote a great relationship between the sovereign tribes and the United States government. For instance, the BIA ensured that the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 was ratified: this act granted the Native Americans U.S. citizenship and the right to vote.[x] In addition, after the passage of landmark legislation, such as the Indian Self-Determination and the Education Assistance Act of 1975, the BIA embodied trust between the Native Americans tribes and the U.S. government.[xi]

 

 (This is Benjamin Reifel who was a commissioner from 1976-1977. His mother was from the Brule Lakota tribe).[xii]

I am entirely satisfied that I read the contents of the website U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs. I learned a lot of new information in regards to the past and current status of the Native Americans, as well as the relationship between the tribes and the United States government. It was also fantastic to read the history of the BIA.

Work Cited:

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[i] U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs, “Frequently Asked Questions,”

http://www.bia.gov/FAQs/index.htm (accessed November 11, 2013).

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Ibid.

[iv] Daily Kos, “Why we stand in line to vote - a historical photo essay,”

http://www.dailykos.com/story/2008/11/01/648948/-Why-we-stand-in-line-to-vote-a-historical-photo-essay# (accessed November 11, 2013).

[v] U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs, “Frequently Asked Questions,”

http://www.bia.gov/FAQs/index.htm (accessed November 11, 2013).

[vi] Ibid.

[vii] Ibid.

[viii] Ibid.

[ix] Ibid.

[x] Ibid.

[xi] Ibid.

[xii] The Weekly South Dakotan, “Benjamin Reifel,” http://www.sd4history.com/Unit9/benreifel.htm (accessed November 11, 2013).

Issues Regarding Tribal Sovereignty Over the Past Five Hundred Years

After researching about the Native Americans over the past couple of weeks, I was plagued with several questions. Did the Native Americans ever exercise the power of sovereignty before the federal government recognized their tribal sovereignty in the 1900’s? How did the colonists demonstrate that they didn’t accept the idea of tribal sovereignty? Were there any European leaders that recognized the Native Americans as being sovereign nations? Did the Native Americans face injustice even in the late 1900’s?

With these questions in mind, I decided to search the website American Indian Issues: an Introductory and Curricular Guide for Educators. I found this site to be extremely fascinating and informative. I was introduced to the concept of sovereign tribal nations and how they were affected by federal policies that were executed from the 1500’s until present day. Not only does this website allow people to gain insight into the lives of the Native Americans throughout the centuries, but it presents a series of lesson plans as well.
 

At the time when Native Americans first came into contact with the Europeans, the tribes would form treaties and establish military alliances with other Indian nations.[i] This demonstrated that the Native Americans practiced the power of sovereignty. When the British began to relocate to America, sovereign Native Americans tribes implemented comparable agreements. Signing such treaties, both the colonists and the Indian nations acknowledged each other's sovereignty.[ii]

 

(The painting demonstrates a treaty that took place between William Penn and the Delaware Indians in the year 1682.)[iii]

Unfortunately, as time progressed, the colonial governments began to reveal that they didn’t fully accept tribal sovereignty.[iv] For instance, they would remove the Native Americans from their land, force them to assimilate, and wage war against different Indian tribes when they refused to relocate to reservations.[v]
 

Fascinatingly, the king of Great Britain in the mid 1700’s, believed that the colonists acted unfairly towards the Native Americans and he decided to “protect” the tribes from the Europeans. Hence, he established a resolution known as the Proclamation Line of 1763 which prohibited British settlers to migrate to the western part of the Appalachian Mountains.[vi] However, it wasn’t long before the colonists began to move to this region.

During the 19^th century, the federal government passed different laws that stated they would maintain negotiations with sovereign Indian nations. Yet, their actions contradicted their declarations. After several famous court cases, such as Worchester V. Georgia, the Native Americans realized that they were demoted to a limited sovereignty and subjugated to the American government and Supreme Court.[vii] Then, in the year 1871, Congress declared that they would no longer make treaties with the Native American tribes.

(This image depicts the incident known as the Trail of Tears. This was a consequence of Worchester V. Georgia’s verdict. This event was proof that the federal government eroded the sovereignty of American Indian nations).[viii]

Finally, in the 1920’s, several politicians began to acknowledge the plight of the Native American nations. Several laws were passed to alleviate the repercussions of federal Indian policies. For instance, voting rights and citizenship were finally extended to Native Americans.[ix] In the year 1946, Congress decided to compensate the Native American tribes for stolen land. Although the federal government began to admit to their injustices towards the tribes, between the years of 1953 and 1964, Congress ended federal recognition of a total of 109 tribes and bands as sovereign dependent nations. Finally, in the 1990’s, the government fully acknowledged tribal sovereignty. 

I am entirely pleased that I read the contents of the website American Indian Issues: an Introductory and Curricular Guide for Educators. All my questions were answered. Additionally, this website allowed me to glean a wealth of knowledge in regards to the sovereignty status of the Native American tribes over the course of history.  

Work cited:

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[i]American Indian Issues: An Introductory and Curricular Guide for Educators, “Historical Overview,” http://americanindiantah.com/history/nar_colonial_legacy.html (accessed October 21, 2013).

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] Colonial Williamsburg, “Primary Source of the Month,” http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume6/nov07/primsource.cfm?showSite=mobile (accessed October 21, 2013).

[iv] Ibid.

[v] Ibid.

[vi] Ibid.

[vii] Ibid.

[viii] Cherokee Community of the Inland Empire, “Trail of Tears,”

http://www.cherokeecommunityie.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/trail-of-tears2.jpg (accessed October 21, 2013).

[ix] American Indian Issues: An Introductory and Curricular Guide for Educators, “Historical Overview,” http://americanindiantah.com/history/nar_colonial_legacy.html (accessed October 21, 2013).